Physical exercise methods: concept and phases. Physical exercises are the main means of physical education for children. The technique of physical exercises is usually called a method

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To achieve the goal of physical education, the following groups of physical education means are used: 1) physical exercise; 2) healing powers of nature; 3) hygiene factors.

The main specific means of physical education are physical exercise, auxiliary means - the healing forces of nature and hygienic factors. The integrated use of these tools allows specialists in physical culture and sports to effectively solve health, educational and educational problems. All means of physical education can be displayed in the form of a diagram (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Means of physical education

These are motor actions (including their combinations) that are aimed at implementing the tasks of physical education, formed and organized according to its laws.

Word physical reflects the nature of the work performed (as opposed to mental work), externally manifested in the form of movements of the human body and its parts in space and time.

Word exercise denotes the directed repetition of an action with the aim of influencing the physical and mental properties of a person and improving the method of performing this action.

Thus, physical exercise is considered, on the one hand, as a specific motor action, on the other, as a process of repeated repetition.

The effect of physical exercise is determined primarily by its content. The content of physical exercises is a set of physiological, psychological and biomechanical processes occurring in the human body when performing this exercise (physiological changes in the body, the degree of manifestation of physical qualities, etc.).

Health benefits of exercise

Performing physical exercises causes adaptive morphological and functional changes in the body, which is reflected in improved health indicators and in many cases has a therapeutic effect.

The health benefits of physical exercise are especially important for hypokinesia, physical inactivity, and cardiovascular diseases.

Under the influence of physical exercise, you can significantly change your body shape. By selecting the appropriate method of performing physical exercises, in some cases the mass of muscle groups is increased, in other cases it is decreased.

With the help of physical exercises, you can purposefully influence the development of a person’s physical qualities, which, naturally, can improve his physical development and physical fitness, and this, in turn, will affect health indicators. For example, when improving endurance, not only does one develop the ability to perform any moderate work for a long time, but also simultaneously improves the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

Educational Role of Exercise

Through physical exercise one learns the laws of movement in the environment and one’s own body and its parts. By performing physical exercises, students learn to control their movements and acquire new motor skills. This, in turn, allows you to master more complex motor actions and learn the laws of movements in sports. The more motor skills and abilities a person has, the easier it is to adapt to environmental conditions and the easier it is to master new forms of movements.

In the process of physical exercise, a whole range of special knowledge is mastered, and previously acquired knowledge is replenished and deepened.

The influence of physical exercise on personality

Physical exercise often requires an extraordinary manifestation of a number of personal qualities. By overcoming various difficulties and managing one’s emotions in the process of physical exercise, a person develops valuable character traits and qualities (courage, perseverance, hard work, determination, etc.).

Physical exercise classes are usually carried out in a group. When performing physical exercises, in many cases the actions of one practitioner depend on or largely determine the actions of another. There is a kind of coordination of one’s actions with the motives and actions of the team, subordination of the individual to a general strategy of action. This is manifested in many outdoor and sports games. The ability to be restrained, to subordinate oneself to the will of the team, to find the one and only correct solution and, regardless of one’s personal ambitions, to help a friend. These and many other moral qualities are formed during physical exercise.

The content of any physical exercise is usually associated with a complex of effects on a person. Professionally, it is very important for a physical education teacher (sports coach) to be able to comprehensively evaluate the content of the exercise used in the pedagogical aspect, to actually determine the possibility of using its various aspects for educational purposes.

Features of the content of a particular physical exercise are determined by its form. The form of a physical exercise is a certain orderliness and consistency of both the processes and the elements of the content of this exercise. In the form of physical exercise, a distinction is made between internal and external structure. The internal structure of a physical exercise is determined by the interaction, consistency and connection of various processes occurring in the body during this exercise. The external structure of a physical exercise is its visible form, which is characterized by the relationship between spatial, temporal and dynamic (strength) parameters of movements.

The content and form of physical exercise are closely interrelated. They form an organic unity, with content playing a leading role in relation to form. To improve motor activity, it is necessary to ensure, first of all, a corresponding change in its content. As the content changes, the form of the exercise also changes. For its part, form also influences content. Imperfect form does not allow the content of the exercise to be fully revealed.

Exercise technique

The target result of movement depends not only on the content, but also on the technique of physical exercise. Physical exercise techniques are understood as methods of performing motor actions, with the help of which a motor task is solved expediently with relatively greater efficiency.

There are three phases in a physical exercise: preparatory, main (leading) and final (final).

Preparatory phase designed to create the most favorable conditions for performing the main task of the action (for example, the starting position of a short-distance runner, the backswing when throwing a discus, etc.).

Main phase consists of movements (or movements) with the help of which the main task of the action is solved (for example, starting acceleration and running at a distance, performing a turn and final effort in discus throwing, etc.).

Final phase completes the action (for example, running by inertia after the finish, movements to maintain balance and extinguish the inertia of the body after releasing a projectile in throwing, etc.).

The effect of physical exercise depends significantly on the biomechanical characteristics of individual movements. There are spatial, temporal, spatio-temporal and dynamic characteristics of movements.

Spatial characteristics of physical exercise

These include the position of the body and its parts (initial position and operational posture during the movement), direction, amplitude, trajectory.

The effectiveness of subsequent actions largely depends on the starting position. For example, bending the legs and swinging the arms before taking off in standing jumps largely determines the effectiveness of subsequent actions (take-off and flight) and the final result.

An equally important role is played by a certain posture during the exercise. The final result depends on how rational it is. For example, if a skater’s position is incorrect, the running technique becomes difficult; an incorrect posture when jumping from a springboard does not allow you to fully use the air cushion and carry out a gliding flight.

The direction of movement affects the accuracy of the motor action and its final result. For example, deviation of the hand from the correct position when throwing a javelin or discus significantly affects the direction of flight of the projectile. Therefore, when carrying out a motor action, each time they choose a direction that would best suit the rational technique.

Rational technique largely depends on the amplitude in the preparatory or main phases of the movement. In many cases it determines:

• the duration of the application of forces and, consequently, the magnitude of the acceleration (which is very important, for example, for the result in throwing);
• completeness of muscle stretching and contraction;
• aesthetics and beauty of the movements performed, characteristic of sports and rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, etc. The amplitude of movements depends on the structure of the joints and the elasticity of the ligaments and muscles.

The trajectory of movement is essential for the effectiveness of physical exercises. It can be curved or straight in shape. In many cases, a rounded trajectory shape is justified. This is due to unnecessary expenditure of muscle effort. In other cases, a rectilinear trajectory shape is preferable (a blow in boxing, a thrust in fencing, etc.).

Temporal characteristics of exercise

These include duration of movements And pace.

The duration of the exercise as a whole (running, swimming, etc.) determines the magnitude of its impact (load). The duration of individual movements affects the performance of the entire motor action.

The pace of movement is determined by the number of movements per unit time. The speed of body movement in cyclic exercises (walking, running, swimming, etc.) depends on it. The amount of load in the exercise is also directly dependent on the tempo.

Spatiotemporal characteristics - speed and acceleration. They determine the nature of the movement of the body and its parts in space. The speed of movements determines their frequency (tempo), the amount of load during the exercise, the result of many motor actions (walking, running, jumping, throwing, etc.).

Dynamic characteristics of physical exercises

They reflect the interaction of internal and external forces in the process of movement. Internal forces are: active contraction forces - muscle traction, elastic forces, elastic resistance to stretching of muscles and ligaments, reactive forces. However, internal forces cannot move a body in space without interacting with external forces. External forces include support reaction forces, gravitational forces (gravity), friction and resistance of the external environment (water, air, snow, etc.), inertial forces of moving objects, etc.

Rhythm as a complex characteristic of physical exercise technique reflects the natural order of distribution of efforts in time and space, the sequence and degree of their change (increase and decrease) in the dynamics of action. Rhythm unites all elements of technique into a single whole and is the most important integral feature of the technique of motor action.

Criteria for assessing the effectiveness of technology

Pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of a technique are understood as signs on the basis of which a teacher can determine (evaluate) the degree of correspondence between the observed method of performing a motor action and the objectively necessary one.

In the practice of physical education, the following criteria for assessing the effectiveness of technology are used:

1) the effectiveness of physical exercise (including sports results);

2) parameters of the reference technology. Its essence lies in the fact that the parameters of the observed action are compared with the parameters of the reference technology;

3) the difference between the actual result and the possible one.

Immediate (trace) and cumulative effects of exercise

The effect of any physical exercise can be observed directly during its implementation and after a certain period of time. In the first case, they talk about the immediate effect of the exercise, which is characterized, among other things, by fatigue resulting from prolonged or repeated performance of the exercise during the lesson. In the second case, there is a trace effect of the exercise.

At the same time, depending on the time intervals that pass before the next lesson, the following phases of changes in the effect of exercise are distinguished: the phase of relative normalization, the supercompensatory and reduction phases.

In the phase of relative normalization, the trace effect of the exercise is characterized by the deployment of recovery processes, leading to the restoration of operational performance to the original level.

In the supercompensatory phase, the trace effect of the exercise is expressed not only in the reimbursement of work expenses, but also in the compensation of them “in excess”, in the excess of the level of operational performance above the initial level.

In the reduction phase, the trace effect of the exercise is lost if the time between sessions is too long. To prevent this from happening, it is necessary to conduct subsequent sessions either in the relative normalization phase or in the supercompensatory phase. In such cases, the effect of previous classes will “layer” on the effect of subsequent ones. As a result, a qualitatively new effect of the systemic use of exercises arises - a cumulative-chronic effect. It is thus the general result of the integration (combination) of the effects of a regularly repeated exercise (or a system of various exercises).

Physical exercise technique is a method of performing a motor action, with the help of which a motor task is solved most expediently with relatively greater efficiency.

There are three phases in physical exercise:

Preparatory (creates the most favorable conditions for fulfilling the main task of the action); - main (movements with the help of which the main task of the action is solved); - final (completes the action).

The effect of physical exercise depends on the biomechanical characteristics of individual movements:

Spatial – position of the body and its parts (ip., operational posture), direction, amplitude, trajectory;

Temporary - duration of movements (magnitude of impact - load) and tempo (number of movements per unit of time);

Spatiotemporal – speed and acceleration (determine the nature of the movement of the body and its parts in space);

Dynamic - interaction of internal (forces of active contraction - muscle traction, force of elastic resistance to muscle stretching, reactive forces) and external (support reactions, gravitational, friction and resistance of the external environment, etc.) forces in the process of movements.

Criteria for the effectiveness of a technique are signs on the basis of which the measure of compliance of the observed method of motor action with the objectively necessary one is assessed:

1) effectiveness of physical exercise:

Efficiency – compliance with the tasks being solved and high final results, the level of physical, technical, mental preparedness;

Stability – noise immunity, independence from external and internal conditions;

Variability – correction of motor actions depending on competition conditions;

Profitability – rational expenditure of effort, time, space;

Minimal tactical information for the opponent.

2) parameters of the reference technology (comparison of the parameters of the observed action with the parameters of the reference technology);

3) the difference between the actual and possible result.

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  Technique physical exercises: general concept, the basis technology, The main thing link, details.
  2) reference parameters technology(comparing the parameters of the observed action with the parameters of the reference technology)


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  Technique physical exercises: general concept, the basis technology, The main thing link, details.
  Special preparatory exercises - elements


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  Lesson physical culture - main form of classes physical exercises At school.
  1. Clarify the action in all main reference points, as in basis, and in details technology.
  3. Eliminate minor errors in technology, especially in her mostly link.


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  The goal is to form in the student basics technology the movement being studied and achieve its implementation in general features.
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  Just download the cheat sheets Physical culture - and no exam is scary for you!
  1 - Clarify the action in all main reference points, as in basis, and in details technology.
  3 - Eliminate minor errors in technology, especially in her mostly link.


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  Basics condition for positive skill transfer is the presence of structural similarity in the main thing link technology motor action.


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  Main methodological direction in the process physical education is strictly regulated exercises.
  You can master individual details, elements and phases in general movement structure, focusing on main details technology.

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Under exercise technique understand the methods of performing motor actions with the help of which a motor task is solved expediently with relatively greater efficiency.

There are three phases in physical exercise: preparatory, main (leading) and final (final).

The preparatory phase is intended to create the most favorable conditions for performing the main task of the action (for example, the starting position of a sprinter, a backswing when throwing a discus, etc.).

The main phase consists of movements (or movements) with the help of which the main task of the action is solved (for example, starting acceleration and running at a distance, performing a turn and final effort in discus throwing, etc.).

The final phase completes the action (for example, jogging by inertia after the finish, movements to maintain balance and extinguish the inertia of the body after releasing a projectile in throwing, etc.).

There are three elements in the technique of any exercise: fundamentals of technology, main link, details.

The basis of the technique includes the main elements of the exercise, without which it should not be performed or it will be distorted. For example, “running long jump”: run-up, take-off, flight, landing.

The main link is the most important element of the basis of the technique, for example: repulsion.

Details of technology - these include minor elements that do not affect the final result.

The exercise technique depends on the individual characteristics of the athlete, such as anthropometric indicators (height, weight, etc.), on motor abilities (level of development of flexibility, strength, speed, endurance), on the psyche (peculiarities of perception, temperament, etc.).

The standard of physical exercise technique is the technique of the best athletes.

The standard of exercise technique is the basis of technique that is taught to everyone.

Individual technique of physical exercises is a technique manifested in details. Proper use of an athlete’s individual characteristics improves results in performing exercises. Outstanding athletes often have an individual (unique) style of performing competitive exercises.

Criteria for assessing the effectiveness of technology. Pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of a technique are usually understood as signs on the basis of which a teacher can determine (evaluate) the degree of correspondence between the observed method of performing a motor action and an objectively extremely important one.

In the practice of physical education, the following criteria for assessing the effectiveness of technology are used:

1. the effectiveness of physical exercise (including sports results);

2. parameters of reference technology. Its essence lies essentially in the fact that the parameters of the observed action are compared with the parameters of the reference technology;

3. the difference between the actual result and the possible one.

Physical exercise technique - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Physical Exercise Technique" 2017, 2018.

Very often you will come across famous holivars on the topic of which is better, bodyweight or iron, parkour or tricking, etc., gymnastics or workout. In general, these are mainly disputes between inadequate people who think too narrowly.

NEVER DIVIDE YOUR EXERCISES BY EQUIPMENT. Absolutely all exercises are useful, the main thing is to perform them at the right time and with the right effort. Therefore, divide all exercises according to the following criteria:

1. Area of ​​influence (i.e. muscle group)
2. The effort required to perform the exercise (calculated as a percentage, 100% is taken to be the effort that leads to failure with one repetition).
3. Intensity. Usually this is the amount of rest between repetitions.
4. Duration of continuous exposure (in seconds).
5. Tempo – i.e. execution speed

Rep failure is when you are physically unable to perform at least one more repetition with precise technique.

Having realized this, you will understand that if a person pushes himself to failure in 15 push-ups on the uneven bars in 30 seconds or does the same in 10 repetitions in a bench press with a weight, then these exercises are equally effective for him.

Terms: MVC - maximum voluntary strength

To train basic functional qualities, I use different types of influence on the muscle. I took the methods from Seluyanov’s method, but since they are difficult to understand and contain a bunch of terms, I simplified these methods. Conventionally, I highlight these.

1. Exercises for maximum strength

To do this, use maximum force for no more than 10 seconds. A typical example is lifting maximum weights 1-3 times, as in powerlifting. Rest between sets – 3-5 minutes. This also includes the effective 5x5 system; information about it can be found on the Internet.

2. Exercise for strength and mass

To do this, we do the approach for 20-40 seconds. The exercise is performed with an intensity of 70-90% MPS. The pace is average. The lifting is fast and the lowering of the weight (negative phase) is slow. Reps 8-12 per set. In fact, the number of repetitions is not so important, the main thing is to choose such a weight that you reach failure in about 30 seconds. Usually this is 8-12 repetitions.

In this type of load, a clear failure is very important; even after a failure, it is very advisable to sometimes ask your partner to help you do a couple more repetitions. At the same time, you shouldn’t make all approaches in the exercise as easy as possible; one is enough.

Rest can be done from 1 to 3 minutes (depending on the load).

3. Explosive speed and speed drills

Speed ​​is directly related to the amount of creatine phosphate in the muscle. To increase the amount of creatine phosphate, it is necessary to perform short-term (no more than 10 seconds) exercises performed with maximum power (running 50 - 60 m, jumping, swimming 10 - 15 m, exercises on simulators, lifting a barbell, etc.) Total approaches in You can do 10-20 exercises with a little rest between sets. Such training is often called interval training.

These three types use the creatine phosphate recovery method + add a little glycolytic. It is important not to allow the total time under load to exceed 30-40 seconds, because otherwise more and more lactic acid accumulates in the muscles, and as a result, the muscles will not be ready for full work.

4. Statodynamic exercises

The exercise is performed with an intensity of 30-70% MVC, the number of repetitions is 15-25 in one approach. The duration of the exercise is 50-70 s. In this version, each exercise is performed in a static-dynamic mode, i.e. without completely relaxing the muscles during the exercise. After the first approach to the apparatus, only slight local fatigue occurs. Therefore, after a short rest interval (20-60 s), the exercise should be repeated. After the second approach, a burning sensation and pain appears in the muscle. After the third approach, these sensations become very strong - stressful. These 3 approaches with a short rest make up one set. Repeat 3-4 sets with 3-5 minutes rest between sets

5. Circuit training for strength endurance

Take several exercises (usually 4-6) and do one exercise after another at speed (but not maximum) without rest (or with minimal rest). The total time of one lap is no more than 3 minutes. Repeat for 3 circles in total, resting between circles for 3-5 minutes. Intensity 30-70% MPS

These two types use the lactate type of energization. This type is needed mainly in those sports where you need to exert high efforts (but not maximum) over a period of 1-5 minutes. A typical example is martial arts, where sparring sessions last with an average round of 3 minutes. The main biochemical criteria for such training are:

1. decrease in glycogen content in muscles.

2. During training, lactic acid should accumulate in the muscles and blood.

A good effect is achieved by gradually reducing the rest time between working intervals.

The rest periods between exercises are short, they are not enough to restore glycogen reserves, its reserves are greatly reduced, and this is a prerequisite for supercompensation.

6. Aerobic endurance exercises

Long-term work with moderate load for a long time. A typical example is long-distance running.

7. TABATA Protocol

We perform the exercise with maximum effort for 20 seconds - 10 seconds of rest. We repeat this 8 times. Suitable only for those exercises where you can develop near-maximal intensity. These are exercise bikes, burpees.

These methods are aerobic method training, although the Tabata protocol is more of a hybrid method. It is used in those sports for which endurance is important. Examples, long distance running, many team sports. At the same time, there is also the concept of specific endurance.

Since in many sports the load is often uneven and periods of long-term moderate load alternate with short explosive efforts. For such training, exercises for specific endurance are also used; for this purpose, conditions close to competitive ones are simply created. For example, work on the ground for 10 minutes for wrestlers, training sparring, etc. Those. It is more effective to increase endurance in such sports not with the help of running, but with the help of movements typical for this sport, performed for a long time.

8. Isometric exercises

Mainly static exercises are used for development. The essence of isometric exercises is that for 6-12 seconds maximum effort is expended to counteract the resistance of an object, without movement occurring. This is what distinguishes isometric exercises, in which muscle contraction only causes tension, from isotonic exercises, during which muscle contraction causes its length to change. Isometric exercises develop strength well and strengthen tendons and ligaments.

There are several methods for performing such exercises. All of them can be roughly divided into exercises with your own weight, weights and equipment.

With your weight– these are different types of horizons and planks in gymnastics. Choose what you want to learn and try it. Personally, I like different types of horizontals from gymnastics, racks, as well as front hangs on horizontal bars. The most important thing is that it should be quite difficult for you to maintain this position. Gradually, day after day, you need to increase the hold to 10-20 seconds, after which we complicate the exercise.

With weights– sometimes such exercises are called lockouts. To do this, take a weight 50-60% more than your working weight and perform the exercise at the extreme point of the amplitude, the movement taking about a couple of centimeters. Those. the weight should be such that you cannot lift it to its full amplitude, so be very careful

Exercise with equipment, for example, chains, ropes - you can read more about such effects in the article about the Zass technique

/././. Original definition; content and form of physical exercise

The term “exercise” in the theory and practice of physical education has a double meaning. It denotes, firstly, certain types of motor actions that have developed as means of physical education; secondly, the process of repeated reproduction of these actions, which is organized in accordance with well-known methodological principles. It is clear that these two meanings of the term “exercise” are not only interrelated, but also partially overlap. However, they should not be mixed. In the first case, we are talking about how(by means of which) influence the physical condition of a person in the process of physical education; in the second - about How(by what method) this influence is carried out. In order not to confuse these meanings, it makes sense to introduce a terminological clarification: in the first case, it is advisable to use the term “physical exercise” (or “physical exercises”), in the second case, the term “method (or methods) of exercise.”

Motor actions performed by a person, as is known, are extremely diverse (work, household, play, etc.).

Through a set of movements combined into integral actions, a person’s practically active attitude to the world ultimately manifests itself. “All the infinite variety of external manifestations of brain activity,” wrote I.M. Sechenov, “finally comes down to just one phenomenon - muscle movement”*. Through motor actions, a person satisfies his needs and changes himself.

Not all movements and actions can be called physical exercise. Physical exercise- These are types of motor actions (including their combinations) that are aimed at implementing the tasks of physical education and are subject to its laws. This definition emphasizes the most important distinctive feature of physical exercise - the correspondence of the form and content of actions to the essence of physical education, to the patterns according to which it occurs. If, for example, walking is used for the purposes of physical education, then it only acquires the significance of an adequate means when it is given rational forms that are justified from the standpoint of physical education, and when the level of functional activity of the body it provides corresponds to what is objectively necessary for the effective education of physical qualities. The same can be said about any other motor actions that initially arose in the sphere of work or everyday life, and then, changing accordingly, became means of physical education (running, overcoming object obstacles, throwing, swimming, lifting weights, wrestling, etc. ).

From here it should be clear that, although a number of physical exercises have an external resemblance to certain forms of labor, combat and everyday activities, they cannot be identified, much less replaced with each other (as some educators tried to do in their time, advocating a reduction in physical education at school under the pretext of introducing manual physical labor). Of course, optimally organized physical labor, especially in favorable environmental conditions (work in the forest, field, etc.) and with a certain dosage of load, can to one degree or another give the effect envisaged in physical education, but in essence in its own way, it is not identical to physical exercise, since it is aimed at external nature and is performed according to the laws of production of material goods. The relationship between physical exercise and physical labor does not lie in the fact that they can replace each other, but, first of all, in the fact that, having originally arisen on the basis of labor actions, physical exercise has become an indispensable means of preparing for work.

The number of physical exercises currently practiced is extremely large, and many of them differ significantly.

* I. M. Sechenov. Favorite philosopher, and psychological works. GIPL, 1947, p. 71.

differ from each other both in form and content. For correct orientation in this variety of exercises, appropriate selection and use of them, it is necessary, first of all, to clearly understand the essence of their content.

Contents of physical exercise constitute the motor acts included in it (movements, operations) and those basic processes that unfold in the functional systems of the body during the exercise, determining its impact. These processes are complex and diverse. They can be considered in various aspects: psychological, physiological, biochemical, biomechanical, etc.

In the psychological and physiological aspect, physical exercises are considered as voluntary movements, which, in the words of I.M. Sechenov, are “controlled by the mind and will” (in contrast to “involuntary”, unconditioned reflex movements that occur mechanically). When performing a physical exercise, a conscious orientation towards achieving a specific result (effect) that corresponds to certain objectives of physical education is always assumed. The implementation of this attitude is associated with active mental work, anticipation of the result And assessment of the conditions for its achievement, development of a project (program) of action and choice of the method of its implementation, control of movements, volitional efforts, emotions and other mental and psychomotor processes.

Having a conditioned reflex nature, as shown by I. P. Pavlov’s scale, physical exercises are not, however, reduced to conditioned reflexes to external stimuli. Modern physiological ideas about the mechanisms of physical exercise are developing in line with the ideas of “activity physiology,” which emphasize the specific nature of deliberately directed, expedient actions. Explaining their specificity, P.K. Anokhin proposed the concept of a “functional system” that initially arises on a conditioned reflex basis and at the same time acquires the ability for self-programming and self-regulation *. This echoes N.A. Bernstein’s concept of the physiological mechanisms of constructing purposeful movements, in which the central place is occupied by ideas about the constructive role of the motor task as a “model of the required future.” “Living movement,” according to N.A. Bernstein, in contrast to mechanical movement, is internally connected with a search focused on the embodiment of what was initially intended as a “model” (an image of the desired result or state), and therefore it is not a reaction, but action, not a response to external irritation, but a solution to a motor task**. It would be wrong, however, to assume that this excludes the determination of expedient movements by external conditions. The position formulated by I.M. Sechenov also remains valid: movements that are called voluntary in physiology are, in the strict sense, reflective.”

To understand the essence of physical exercises, it is necessary to keep in mind further that the fact of performing any of them means the body’s transition to one or another level of its functional activity. The range of this transition may depend on the features

* P. K. A N o h i n. Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex. M., Medicine, 1968.

** N. A. Bernstein. Essays By physiology of movements and physiology of activity. M., Medicine, 1966.

The type of exercise and the degree of preparedness of the practitioner is very significant. Pulmonary ventilation, for example, can increase 30 times or more, oxygen consumption - 20 times or more, minute blood volume - 10 times or more. Accordingly, the volume and intensity of metabolic, dissimilation and assimilation processes in the body increase.

The functional changes that occur during exercise stimulate subsequent processes of recovery and adaptation, due to which physical exercise, under certain conditions, serves as a powerful factor in increasing the functional capabilities of the body and improving its structural properties. Noting the amazing ability of the body not only not to wear out under the influence of activity, but also to develop thanks to it, A. A. Ukhtomsky wrote: “... living matter is characterized by a powerful ability of assimilation, which constantly replenishes current expenses. This ability of compensatory assimilation is so powerful that, as experiments convince us, it often leads to the fact that it is the working organ that accumulates substance and working potentials in particular... above the level at which they were before work.” Thanks to this “excess compensation” and “the well-known picture is obtained that it is work and exercise that lead to an increase in mass and development of organs”*. Modern research is increasingly revealing the mechanisms of such supercompensation, which allows the body not only to adapt to the conditions of activity, but also to almost limitlessly expand the boundaries of its capabilities**.

When considering the content of physical exercises from a pedagogical point of view, it is especially important that they purposefully develop a person’s abilities in unity with the formation of certain skills. This means that for a physical education specialist, the main aspect in understanding the essence of physical exercises should be the general pedagogical aspect, which determines their significance for the implementation of certain educational tasks.

When considering physical exercises in this aspect, it is necessary to constantly remember that their impact is never limited only to the biological sphere of a person, it extends to one degree or another to the psyche, consciousness, and behavior. A scientific understanding of the essence of physical exercises is incompatible with a one-sided assessment of them as only a biological stimulus or as only a means of influencing spiritual principles (which is typical for representatives, on the one hand, of vulgar materialistic, and on the other, idealistic movements in the theory of physical education). Only based on the actual unity of mathematics

* A. A. Ukhtomsky. Collection soch., vol. Sh. L., 1951, p. 113-114. ** Of great interest, in particular, are the studies that have shown that muscular work, which exceeds in its demands on the body a certain usual level of its functioning, causes activation of the genetic synthesis of cells, stimulates biosynthesis and leads over time to an increase in the power of the energy and plastic systems that support functions body (F. 3. Meerson. General mechanism of adaptation and prevention. M., Medicine, 1973; etc.)

real and mental phenomena occurring in the process of performing physical exercises, unity from the standpoint of materialist dialectics, it is possible to correctly interpret their content.

Its form decisively depends on the characteristics of the content of a particular physical exercise. Form of physical exercise represents its internal and external structure (construction, organization). Internal structure physical exercise is characterized by how, during its implementation, various processes of the functioning of the body are interconnected, how they relate, interact and coordinate with each other. Neuromuscular coordination, the interaction of motor and autonomic functions, the ratio of various energy (aerobic and anaerobic) processes, for example, when running, will be significantly different than when lifting a barbell. External structure of physical exercise- this is its visible form, which is characterized by the relationship between spatial, temporal and dynamic (power) parameters of movements.

The content and form of physical exercise are organically interconnected, and the content is decisive; it plays a leading role in relation to the form. This means that in order to achieve success in a particular physical exercise, it is necessary to ensure, first of all, a corresponding change in its content, creating conditions for increasing the functional capabilities of the body based on the development of strength, speed or other abilities, on which the result of this exercise decisively depends . As the elements of the content of the exercise change, its form also changes (for example, an increase in the power or speed of movements or endurance affects the amplitude of movements, the ratio of support and non-support phases and other signs of the form of the exercise).

For its part, the form also influences the content. An imperfect form of physical exercise prevents the maximum identification of functional capabilities, as if fetters them; perfect form contributes to the most effective use of physical abilities (for example, at the same speed of movement on skis, a person who has perfect skiing technique spends 10-20% less energy than someone whose form of movements is imperfect). The relatively independent significance of the form of physical exercise is also expressed in the fact that exercises that are different in content can have a similar form (like, say, walking or running over different distances). At the same time, exercises of different forms may have common content features (for example, running, rowing, swimming with the same physiological intensity).

Thus, although the content and form of physical exercise are inseparable from each other, certain inconsistencies and contradictions are possible between them (in the dialectical sense of the word). They are overcome by ensuring the development of physical qualities in unity with a corresponding change in the form of movements.

A correct understanding of the noted relationships between the form and content of physical exercises is a necessary condition for their appropriate use in the practice of physical education.

1.1.2. Exercise technique

In the process of improving the forms of physical exercises, rational ways of performing motor actions are sought. An important prerequisite for this is knowledge of the laws that govern the so-called physical exercise technique.

1.1.2.1. General concept of the technique of motor actions

In every voluntary motor act there is a motor task, recognized as a specific desired result of the action, and the way in which it is solved. In many cases, the same motor task can be solved in several different ways (for example, you can perform a high jump by pushing off with both the foot closest to the bar and the foot farthest from it), and among them there are relatively less effective and more effective ones. Those methods of performing motor actions with the help of which a motor task is solved expediently, with relatively greater efficiency, are usually called physical exercise techniques*.

This concept is on a par with the concept of “form of physical exercise”, if, recall, we mean by it not only the external, but also the internal structure of movements. The difference, however, is that the term “technique” does not refer to any, but only to effective forms of physical exercise, rationally constructed taking into account the patterns of movements**. It is clear that the degree of effectiveness of a physical exercise technique at any given moment is relative, since the technique itself does not remain unchanged. It is constantly being improved and updated, becoming more and more effective, both in an individual person (as his motor skills and abilities are improved), and as a whole (as scientific knowledge of the patterns of movements becomes more in-depth, methods of teaching physical exercises and education are improved). physical qualities). The progress of physical exercise techniques is due, to a certain extent, to the improvement of special equipment and tools. All this constantly leads to the emergence of more effective forms of exercise, as can be easily seen from the example of sports technique, which has changed so significantly in almost all sports in recent decades.

From the Greek root “techn”, on the basis of which a number of terms are derived denoting skill, art, etc.

The criteria for the effectiveness of physical exercise techniques are considered, in particular, in the course of biomechanics (see: D. D. Donskoy, V. M. Zatsiorsky. Biomechanics. Textbook for IFC. M., FiS, 1979, § 63).

A distinction is made between the basis of the movement technique, its main link and details.

Basis of movement technique- this is a set of those links and features of the structure of movements that are, of course, necessary to solve a motor task in a certain way (the order of manifestation of muscle forces, the main points of coordination of movements in space and time, etc.). The loss or violation of at least one element or relationship in a given set makes the solution of the motor task impossible.

The main link (or links) of movement technique- This is the most important part of this method of performing a motor task. For example, when jumping high from a running start - take-off combined with a fast and high swing of the leg; in throwing - final effort; when lifting with an extension on gymnastic apparatus - timely and energetic extension in the hip joints, followed by braking and synchronized tension of the muscles of the upper limbs. Performing the movements that are part of the main link usually occurs in a relatively short period of time and requires significant muscle effort.

TO details of movement technique usually include its individual components, in which individual variations of technology of an unprincipled nature are manifested. Often they differ from one individual to another in one way or another, since they are determined by morphological and functional characteristics (for example, differences in the ratio of the length and frequency of steps when running are due to differences in the length of the limbs, the unequal depth of the squat when lifting a barbell is due to different degrees of development of flexibility and strength abilities). Given the inevitable individual differences in the details of technology, in principle it is impossible to deviate from its general natural basis. On the other hand, the general laws of movement technique do not exclude the advisability of individual variation, including the forms of use of the main mechanism. The technique of movement can least of all be likened to “one-size-fits-all clothing” that fits everyone. Mechanical copying of the individualized techniques of outstanding athletes often leads to negative results.

In this regard, it should be taken into account that the term “movement technique” in the specialized literature is often given a double meaning: it denotes both actually observed, in fact always individualized ways of performing motor actions, and some abstracted “models” of actions (their ideal “samples” described in words, graphically, mathematically or in some other conventional form). To avoid confusion of concepts in the second case, it is better to use the term “model of technology”. The latter, if developed correctly, gives an approximate idea of ​​the general rational principles of movement technique, of its supposed most effective forms. True, the search for standards of ideal technique for various physical exercises has so far led to the identification of only some, mainly biomechanical, patterns of their construction. In practice, a physical education specialist always faces the problem of developing and refining specific models of technology that would correspond to the individual characteristics of those being educated and the intended results of education. Moreover, the real forms of the technique of the same physical exercises do not remain at different stages of physical education

unchanged, since they crucially depend on the degree of development of a person’s physical and mental qualities, which change in the process of upbringing.

For a holistic description of physical exercise technique, the concept of the structural basis of the movement system. By this we mean a natural, relatively stable order of combining individual moments, aspects and complex features of a system of movements as part of an integral motor act. We are talking, therefore, not about the elements themselves that make up a motor action, but about their necessary relationships with each other as part of the action, about their expedient organization in space and time, about the patterns of interaction of forces that ensure the final result of the action, etc. etc., i.e. about the natural construction of it as a whole. In connection with various aspects of the analysis of movement techniques, kinematic (spatial, temporal and spatio-temporal), dynamic (strength) and rhythmic or, more broadly, the general coordination structure of movements are distinguished. In reality, these facets of the structure do not exist in isolation from each other. However, highlighting them is not without cognitive and practical meaning, if we do not forget about the actual relationship and interdependence of all characteristics of physical exercise techniques.

1.1.2.2. Some characteristics and rules of technical performance of physical exercises

When analyzing physical exercise techniques for cognitive and practical purposes, a number of features are taken into account that characterize rational movements and their connections (the so-called technical characteristics of movements). Some of them, which are important for the methodology of physical education, are briefly discussed here in connection with the rules for the technical performance of motor actions.

Kinematic characteristics. These include, as is known, spatial, temporal and spatiotemporal characteristics. In biomechanics, certain physical quantities and dimensional formulas are established for them**.

Spatial characteristics. Spatially, the technique of physical exercise is characterized, firstly, by the rational relative position of the parts of the motor apparatus, providing an appropriate starting position before the start of the action and an operational posture during its implementation, and secondly, by maintaining the optimal trajectory of movements.

* In the specialized literature, other types of structure of the movement system are also identified, but their description has not yet become complete.

** Most of the elementary mechanical characteristics of movements mentioned in the text are discussed in the course of biomechanics. They should not be identified with the given characteristics of technology as a way of performing motor actions.

The correct starting position is one of the important prerequisites for the effective execution of subsequent movements, in particular their external effectiveness. Special requirements in this regard are imposed on sports starting positions (low start of a sprinter, fighting stance of a fencer, boxer, etc.). The starting position, using the expression of A. A. Ukhtomsky, can be called a state of “operational rest”, in which, although there are no external movements, purposeful readiness for action is concentrated. The direction of the exercise’s impact also significantly depends on the starting position (for example, just a few degrees change in the angle of the relative position of the arms and torso when bench pressing a barbell while lying on an inclined board significantly changes the effect of the exercise on muscle groups, and hence on the development of the power properties of the musculoskeletal system). A number of initial provisions adopted in physical education (for example, standing at attention, at ease) also have independent significance for solving particular pedagogical problems.

Equally important is a rational operational posture during the exercise. It helps maintain static and dynamic balance of the body, efficiently coordinate movements, and effectively demonstrate strength and other physical qualities. Thus, the horizontal position of the swimmer’s body, the low position of the skater and cyclist reduce the resistance of the external environment and thereby contribute to rapid movement; The gliding posture in ski jumping from a springboard makes it possible to better use the supporting forces of air resistance and thereby increase the distance of the jump. By changing the position of the body and its links during the exercise, you can change the direction and magnitude of dynamic support reactions (for example, when running and jumping), inertial, rotational and other forces (for example, in gymnastic exercises) and thereby impart the necessary acceleration, direction and amplitude body movements, it is advisable to vary their parameters. The position of the body and its changes during the exercise should, in principle, correspond to biomechanical and other natural laws. But not only them. A number of body positions are subject, in particular, to special aesthetic requirements (for example, in gymnastics, acrobatics, diving and ski jumping, figure skating).

The trajectory of movements distinguishes direction, shape and amplitude. The technique of physical exercise is characterized not by the trajectory of the body's movement itself, but by the optimal combination of the trajectories of movements of its various parts, the rational regulation of these movements in the direction, amplitude and shape of the trajectory.

When making movements in three-dimensional space, each time you need to choose from the many possible directions those that would be the best for effectively performing the exercise.

neniya. Both the external effectiveness of the exercise and its developmental effect significantly depend on the extent to which this can be done. If, for example, when throwing a basketball into a hoop from a distance of 6 m, the direction of its flight trajectory deviates from the required one by only 4°, the ball will not hit the hoop; a “stretching” exercise for the pectoralis major muscles and their ligamentous apparatus will be ineffective if jerking movements with arms bent in front of the chest are performed side-down, and not side-to-back or side-to-up. In the practice of physical education, the necessary directions for movements are usually set with the help of external spatial landmarks (markings of running tracks, playgrounds, etc.) and orientation along the planes of the body (sagittal, i.e. anteroposterior, frontal and horizontal). In this regard, it is customary to distinguish between the main (forward-backward, up-down, right-left) and intermediate directions.

The amplitude (span) of movements depends on the structure of the joints and the elasticity of the ligaments and muscles. The maximum anatomically possible range of motion when performing physical exercises is not always used. This is explained, in particular, by the fact that to achieve it, an additional expenditure of muscle effort is required, aimed at limiting stretching of the antagonist muscles, and also by the fact that at the extreme points of such an amplitude it is difficult to smoothly change the direction of movement. Certain amplitude limitations are also associated with the risk of injury to the musculo-ligamentous apparatus. At the same time, the effectiveness of a number of motor acts depends on the maximum amplitude of movements in the preparatory or main phases (swing when throwing a javelin, swinging a leg in high jumps, etc.). To increase mobility in joints and improve the elastic properties of muscles and ligaments, special “flexibility” exercises are used, characterized by a gradual increase in the amplitude of movements.

Unlike other spatial parameters of an exercise, the total length of the trajectory of body movement is not a mandatory characteristic of all physical exercises. In some exercises (isometric) it is simply absent, in many others it varies widely: from fractions of a meter (for example, in a number of gymnastic exercises) to many kilometers (in long-distance running, daily walking, etc.). In the latter case, the problem of economical movement technique becomes of particular importance. One of the ways to solve this problem is to find the optimal ratio of the amplitudes of movements of various parts of the motor system.

The movements of individual parts of the human motor system are curvilinear (and not rectilinear) according to the shape of the trajectory, which is due to the natural features of the structure and functions of the organs of movement of living beings. The general path of movement of the body should often be as close as possible to a rectilinear one (for example, when walking, running), which requires fine coordination of the trajectories of individual parts of the body and the overall trajectory of the body. During physical exercises, when changing the direction of movement of individual links, the

Rice. 3. Illustrations of the features of the technique of motor actions:

A- an example of a loop-shaped trajectory of hand movements - preliminary and final movements with the racket when hitting a tennis ball; B- the force of kicking the ball can be increased by lengthening the path and increasing the speed of movement of the foot (with preliminary bending of the leg at the knee joint)

a kind of rounded shape of the trajectory is given (for example, a loop-like movement of the hand when swinging and hitting a ball in tennis or when throwing a grenade - Fig. 3,-4), since this reduces the unnecessary expenditure of muscle effort to overcome the inertial forces of moving parts of the body. But in cases where it is necessary to ensure the highest speed of movement for any link on a short segment of the path (for injections in fencing, direct strikes in boxing, etc.), a rectilinear trajectory shape is preferable.

Thus, an essential role in the technically correct performance of physical exercises is played by the appropriate control of movements in space._ Solving problems of teaching exercise techniques, and provide; in particular, developing the ability to accurately regulate movements within certain spatial parameters along with improving the “sense of space” (“sense of distance” and “sense of height” in jumping and throwing, “sense of distance” in martial arts, etc.).

Temporal characteristics. From the standpoint of biomechanics, movements are characterized in time by their moments, duration and tempo (repetition frequency, or number of movements per unit of time). But these characteristics relate, strictly speaking, not so much to the technique of physical exercise as to the measurement of movements in terms of time. To get an idea of ​​how a technically correctly performed physical exercise is built over time, it is important, in addition to these elementary characteristics, to keep in mind such signs of movements that are part of an integral motor action, such as the timeliness of their beginning, change and completion and consistency in time with each other. friend. The latter is expressed in the synchronicity of some moments or phases of different

personal movements (those that, according to the conditions of the effectiveness of the motor act, must be simultaneous) and the natural sequence of others (those that must follow the previous ones).

All this together characterizes the temporal structure of physical exercises, i.e., how they are organized (built or deployed) in time. It is clear that the very possibility of its implementation and the final effectiveness, including external effectiveness, depend on the degree of timeliness and coordination of movements in time as part of a complex motor action.

Particularly high demands on the accuracy of time control of movements are made in fast-paced sports exercises (sprinting, jumping, throwing, speed-strength weightlifting exercises, many high-speed actions in sports games, martial arts, etc.). In them, a mistake in a split second sometimes radically changes the outcome of the competition. Improving the “sense of time” and developing the ability to accurately regulate movements within given time parameters is among the main tasks of physical education.

Spatiotemporal characteristics. Spatial and temporal parameters of movements can only be separated in abstraction. In real manifestations they are inseparable. Their relationship is expressed, in particular, in the values ​​of speed and acceleration imparted to the parts of the motor apparatus. In this regard, the technique of physical exercise is characterized by a forest-like combination and regulation of movement speeds in the process of motor actions.

Movements that are part of complex motor actions are relatively rarely performed with strictly constant speed and acceleration. One of the basic rules for maximizing the external manifestation of force is that the forces of muscle contraction be applied in the shortest possible time over the largest possible path of movement (Fig. 3. B). At the same time, technically correctly performed physical exercises are not characterized by unnecessarily sharp changes in speeds (here we do not mean objectively determined and pre-programmed rapid accelerations typical of high-speed and speed-strength actions). Unmotivated “differences” in speed are usually a sign of a technically incorrectly performed exercise. In exercises of a cyclic nature aimed at overcoming space, a special role is played by the ability to accurately follow a pre-calculated movement schedule, maintaining a certain speed at each segment of the distance, which contributes to the appropriate distribution of forces over time and helps to delay fatigue. In speed and speed-strength exercises, mobilization for maximum acceleration at decisive moments of action is of paramount importance. In both cases, speed and acceleration must always be controlled.

Dynamic characteristics. Biomechanical forces, with the use of which human movements are made, are accepted

divided into internal (forces of active contraction - muscle traction, elastic forces, elastic resistance to stretching of muscles and ligaments, reactive forces arising from the interaction of parts of the musculoskeletal system, etc.) and external (gravitational forces, ground reaction forces, forces friction, resistance forces of the external environment, inertial forces of moving objects, etc.). The interaction of all these forces constitutes the force, or dynamic, structure of motor actions. The effectiveness of a physical exercise technique is largely determined by how rationally the person performing it uses internal (his own) and external forces that ensure movement.

In the biomechanics of sports and other scientific and applied disciplines, a number of rules have been established for the effective use of forces that contribute to achieving the goal of action and reducing opposing forces (braking, deflecting, acting against the direction of movements, etc.). The perfection of the technique of masters of sports, dance, and circus is explained, among other things, by the fact that the share of active muscle tension in their actions is relatively less, and the share of skillfully used other forces (gravity, inertia, ground reaction, etc.) is greater than in people those who do not know the technique of exercises. One should strive to use all the forces that contribute to achieving the goal, while simultaneously reducing the forces that oppose it, in the process of learning physical exercise techniques. As a result, the most optimal dynamic structure of movements should be formed.

In detail, it is characterized by a number of patterns and features of the interaction of forces, in particular: the justified transfer of the amount of movement during the exercise from one link of the motor apparatus to another (when the movement in the next phase occurs not only as a result of muscle contractions, but also, as it were, due to the transfer of kinetic energy from one previously moving link to another, as, for example, when going to point-blank range in a kip-up on the uneven bars due to the active braking of the movement of the legs), the expedient creation of counteraction to oppositely directed forces (for example, gravitational forces during take-offs in jumps), a consistent increase in efforts in the decisive phase of the action (the resultant of the forces brought into action to the outcome of this phase should coincide as completely as possible with the optimal direction of the resulting movement - for example, when throwing a javelin, shot put, long jump or high jump).

Rhythm as a complex characteristic of physical exercise technique. The term “rhythm” has many meanings (musical, poetic, heart rhythms, etc.). In relation to physical exercises, it means a certain ordering of movements as part of a holistic action, in which accentuated (associated with the active increase in muscle tension)

actions) phases of action naturally alternate with unaccented ones (characterized by less tension or relaxation). Rhythm should not be confused with the tempo of movements, which, as stated, is only one of the temporal characteristics (their frequency per unit of time). "Rhythm is a complex characteristic of physical exercise technique, reflecting the natural order of distribution of efforts in time and space, sequence and measure their changes (increase and decrease) in the dynamics of action.

The most active muscle efforts are concentrated in the accentuated phases of action. The movements caused by these efforts can continue for a certain time without tension, under conditions of relative or complete muscle relaxation. As a result of systematic exercises, the optimal degree of increase and decrease of efforts is established, as well as a rational ratio of the duration of the phases of tension and relaxation, which allows optimizing the mode of muscle activity and expediently using both internal and external forces of movement.

Thus, for high-class master skiers, in contrast to beginners, the period of pushing off with their legs is much shorter, but is associated with more powerful efforts; the period of sliding constitutes a relatively large proportion of the total duration of the movement cycle (more than 80%), the power of movements is combined with their efficiency, rational relaxation and effective use of sliding forces.

Rhythmically performed physical exercises are also characterized by a clearly coordinated sequence of “switching on” of various muscle groups during the course of action. Moreover, high-speed and speed-strength actions (mainly one-act such as shot put, discus, hammer throwing, boxing strikes and a number of cyclic and mixed exercises such as starting acceleration, high jump, etc.) are often built on the principle of a relatively continuous increase -n and I power of movements to the decisive phase of action.

Since the motor rhythm expresses the natural ordering of elements in the composition of the whole, despite variations in the action, its rhythmic structure is basically preserved (for example, in the case of acceleration or deceleration of action, subject to a proportional change in the spatial, temporal and speed characteristics of movements). At the same time, due to the dependence of the characteristics of the action on external conditions, the specific manifestations of its rhythm vary to a certain extent (for example, the rhythm of alternating skiing under conditions of different terrain and sliding will change). The same can be said about individual variations of rhythm: each person, due to his inherent characteristics, may have his own varieties of rhythm, but they should not go beyond the known boundaries determined by the objectively necessary rhythmic structure of the movement.

Grooms. Knowing this structure, everyone can consciously form and regulate the rhythms of physical exercise. Compared to the biological involuntary rhythms of the body, motor rhythms represent a higher level of organization of functional activity, characteristic only of humans, at which mental factors (“sense of rhythm”, etc.) are purposefully included. The directed formation and improvement of the rhythm of motor actions constitutes, as it were, the core line of the entire process of teaching them in physical education.

Some quality characteristics. In addition to the indicated characteristics, which have a fairly accurate quantitative measure, in the practice of physical education, not entirely strict, but practically useful qualitative characteristics of movements are widely used. Usually they answer the question “how” a motor action is performed, and reflect not one physical sign of movements, but a complex of particular signs taken as a unity. The quality characteristics are varied. It is still difficult to systematize them. But nevertheless, among them we can, with some convention, highlight the following main ones*:

accurate movements are movements that are characterized by high accuracy in achieving an external objective goal (for example, hitting the ball into a basketball basket, into the intended sector of the playing court, or with a puck into a hockey goal) or possibly full compliance with a predetermined reference form (for example, in diving, in gymnastics, figure skating) or some other criterion. In the first case, we can talk about subject-target accuracy, in the second - about accuracy in form. Specifying accuracy in quantitative parameters, it is assessed in terms of space, time, a given amount of effort and other indicators;

economical movements - movements characterized by the absence or minimum of unnecessary, unnecessary movements and the minimum necessary energy expenditure (with perfect technique and high efficiency),

energetic movements - movements performed with pronounced force, speed, power, due to which significant resistance is overcome;

smooth movements - movements with emphasized gradually changing muscle tension, with emphasized gradual acceleration or deceleration, with rounded trajectories when changing the direction of movements. This sign is especially characteristic, for example, of a number of exercises in rhythmic gymnastics, some varieties of Chinese wushu gymnastics, and synchronized swimming;

elastic movements - movements with emphasized amortization phases (or moments) that allow force to be weakened

* Rhythm, more precisely, rhythmicity, if we mean not only its quantitative manifestations, can also be attributed to the qualitative characteristics of physical exercises.

pushes or impacts (for example, when landing after jumping off gymnastic equipment, when catching a ball, when jumping on a trampoline). In some movements, the elastic forces arising in the athlete's body act like a pre-compressed spring, which is used as a significant factor in the effectiveness of the physical exercise technique.

In the practice of physical education, these characteristics of movements are most often assessed by their external manifestations, without the use of complex tools and equipment. Nevertheless, they help to correctly orient the process of qualitatively mastering physical exercise techniques.

Stability and variability of a well-formed movement technique. As the movement technique is formed and improved, such seemingly incompatible features as stability and variability become characteristic of it. Stability is expressed in the fact that when a motor action is repeated, a number of its parameters are reproduced uniformly, practically in the same form, not only in standard conditions, but, if necessary, in changing conditions (for example, given step lengths, tempo and other spatial and temporary parameters of movements in running can be preserved when moving on different ground). Variability is characterized by the introduction of appropriate changes to the details of the action, and, if necessary, to its general structure in relation to unusual conditions of its implementation (for example, when throwing a sports equipment in a strong wind, performing a run-up on slippery ground).

Stability and appropriate variability are equally necessary features of a perfect technique of motor action*. In fact, they do not exclude, but mutually determine each other (thus, in order to ensure the stability of the given spatio-temporal parameters of movements, for example, when running on hard and loose soil, it is necessary to vary the magnitude of muscle efforts, the ratio of tension and relaxation, and other aspects motion control). At the same time, variability is observed to a greater extent in the details of technique, especially in the preparatory phases of motor actions (run-up in jumping, swing in throwing, preliminary swings in gymnastic exercises on apparatus, etc.), and stability - in the main link or main phase of actions .

Thus, we can say that a well-functioning technique of motor actions is characterized by the unity of stability and variability - variable stability, in which variations are

* The supposed physiological basis for the unity of stability and variability of motor skills, according to the ideas developed by the school of I. P. Pavlov, is the “motor dynamic stereotype” - a fairly firmly fixed and at the same time plastic system of neuro-regulatory processes that is formed in the central nervous system ( CNS) according to the patterns of conditioned reflex connections.

Rice. 4. Permissible variability of projectile departure angles (the so-called cone of attack) when throwing a javelin (according to Rieder and Wolferman)

are permissible only within certain limits, limited by the laws of technically correct execution of the action (Fig. 4).

1.1.3. Effects of the exercise

Under effect physical exercise in the most general sense of the word refers to the changes in the state of the body caused by their influence. The effect of any individual exercise is not constant, it varies primarily depending on the length of time following the exercise and the sequence in which the exercise is performed. In this regard, a distinction is made between immediate and trace effects of exercise. Immediate effect characterized by the processes occurring in the body directly during exercise, and by the altered functional state of the body that occurs by the end of the exercise, as a result of its implementation. Trace effect- this is a kind of reflection of the impact of the exercise, remaining after its implementation and changing depending on the dynamics of the recovery and other processes caused by it. Strictly speaking, this is not only a consequence of the exercise. On the one hand, the trace effect is, as it were, an aftereffect of the exercise (since it arises and persists as a result of the exercise), on the other hand, it represents the response of the body’s systems to the impact of this exercise.

In general, the effect of the exercise and its dynamics are transformed in a complex set of organismal processes that occur over time in phases schematically depicted in Fig. 5. In the working phase, i.e. during the exercise, the operational implementation of existing performance occurs to the extent required by the exercise being performed. If it has a significant duration and intensity (such as running for medium or long distances or multiple continuous repetitions of an acyclic exercise), then the level of operational performance at the end of it decreases, compensated or uncompensated fatigue occurs (OR-U curve in the diagram) *. The degree of functional activity of the body systems that ensure the execution of the exercise increases (FA curves in the diagram); At the same time, such working resources of the body as phosphagens, glycogen and other substances used as energy sources during muscle contractions are consumed (BV curves in the diagram). At the same time, as the exercise progresses, functional connections are formed or transformed and strengthened (including central nervous, neuromotor and motor-visceral), on the basis of which motor skills and abilities arise and are improved, metabolic and other body processes are activated, exercises that do not end with the end. All this together characterizes the immediate effect of the exercise.

* Note that the concept of “operational performance” should be distinguished from the extremely general, collective concept of “performance,” meaning a relatively constant ability to perform work (in the physical, physiological and the most general understanding of work as an active manifestation of someone or something). Operational performance means a specific, relatively quickly changing measure of the realization of the ability to act in relation to well-defined, given conditions.

Rice. 5. Diagram illustrating the phases of changes occurring in the body during and as a result of performing exercise of significant duration and intensity:

OR-U - dynamics of operational performance, fatigue and its elimination; FA - dynamics of functional activity of individual body systems; BV - dynamics of consumption and restoration of bioenergetic substances; ESC - supercompensation effect (other explanations in the text)

At the end of the exercise, with the start of the following rest, a phase of relative normalization of the functional state of the body begins, by the end of which a number of indicators return to the pre-working level. If this phase is not interrupted by repeating the same exercise or performing another “load” exercise, recovery processes unfold, leading to the return of operational performance to the original level. Depending on the nature of the changes that occur in the body's systems by the end of the exercise, with its completion, metabolic (metabolic) and other processes occur through the mechanisms of self-regulation of the body's state, ensuring the elimination of disturbances in its homeostasis (elimination of oxygen debt, excess lactic acid in muscles and blood, etc.) .d.), biosynthesis processes are also activated (recovery of bioenergetic substances, amino acids, etc.)*. Along with this, the trace effect of the exercise is expressed in the remaining constructive connections that were formed or strengthened during the exercise as the basis of a motor ability or skill. The decrease in the level of functional activity of various body systems during the phase of relative normalization occurs heterochronically (in the diagram it is conventionally shown by the different slopes of the PA curves), and depending on the nature of the exercise and the characteristics of the response of various functional systems to its impact, the level of individual indicators of their activity at the beginning of this phase may be higher than during the exercise itself (such as the level of oxygen consumption immediately after performing an anaerobic exercise). It is, of course, important to take into account the heterochronicity of recovery processes for the correct regulation of rest intervals when using various means and methods of physical education.

The next phase in the dynamics of the processes under consideration can rightfully be called “supercompensatory,” meaning that under certain conditions it is characterized by phenomena that have received the general name “supercompensation” or “superrestoration.” As already noted (1.1.1), one of the most remarkable properties of living systems is that they are able to restore their working resources expended in the process of activity not just to the original level, but as if in excess, acquiring additional functionality, and not wear out from work (like mechanical systems), and ultimately strengthened and improved thanks to it. It is on this basis that the supercompensatory effect of physical exercise arises, which is explained, in particular, by the excessive recovery that occurs after fairly intense muscular work.

* More details about the physiological picture of the recovery processes that unfold after performing physical exercise are discussed in the physiology course (see, in particular, “Sports Physiology”, edited by Ya. M. Kots. M., FiS, 1986. § 11.5).

reduction of bioenergetic substances and renewal of protein structures in actively functioning body systems.

Not every exercise, of course, is accompanied by such an effect. Obviously, only those exercises that can cause supercompensation are the ones during which a more significant functional mobilization of the body occurs than that to which it has already adapted, with correspondingly increased energy costs. This determines the need to regularly increase the level of functional loads in the process of physical education. The length of time required for relative recovery and supercompensation also significantly depends on their magnitude. The latter, after sufficiently heavy loads, begins to manifest itself only after a considerable time has passed (in certain cases, up to two days or more)*. It must also be taken into account that if this time is prolonged beyond a certain limit, supercompensatory acquisitions and the trace effect of the exercise as a whole begin to disappear, i.e., the reduction phase of the change in the effect of the exercise begins (in this case, the resulting excess glycogen reserves in the body decrease and are lost hypertrophic gains in muscle structures, conditioned reflex connections that arose during the exercise begin to fade, etc. - practically the state of the body returns to its original state before the exercise). It is clear that in the process of physical education it is fundamentally important to prevent the onset of the reduction phase, so to build a system of classes so that each next one begins before the onset of this phase (this will be discussed in more detail in Chapter III).

With regular repetition of exercises, the immediate effect of the subsequent one seems to be superimposed on the trace effect of each previous one within a separate lesson, and the effect of the next lesson is superimposed on their overall trace effect. As a result, there is cumulative effect of the exercise system, which is not reduced to the effects of individual exercises, but is a derivative of both the totality of exercises and the dynamics of the body’s response to their overall impact. Repeated cumulation of the effects of exercise leads over time to significant adaptive changes in the state of the body, an increase in its functional capabilities, the formation and consolidation of motor skills, the development of motor and related abilities, which is expressed, generally speaking, in the acquisition and development of trained skills.

* The effect of a current improvement in operational performance, which is observed during the course of a session after warming up or when alternating relatively short-term exercises, should be distinguished from supercompensation in the above sense. This effect occurs according to the patterns of activation and the immediate positive aftereffect of exercise, and not according to the patterns of supercompensation, the occurrence of which requires a more significant load and a longer recovery time (for example, to replenish the excess glycogen content in the muscles after its consumption close to the limit in hard work requires two to three days).

fitness and physical fitness in general. This is the main meaning of ensuring the cumulative effect of exercises in the process of physical education. But the cumulation of the effect of exercise in certain cases can lead to other results. Thus, when the laws of physical education are violated, in particular, excessive loads are chronically allowed, phenomena such as overexertion, overwork, overtraining, etc. can develop. This is also a cumulative effect of exercise, only, so to speak, with the opposite sign.

When predicting and assessing the effect of exercises, we must not forget that it depends not only on the type and parameters of the exercises themselves, but also on a number of other factors and conditions for their implementation. Externally, the same exercise can give a different effect depending on the specific state of the exercisers, due to their age, gender, individual characteristics, state of health and level of preliminary preparedness, as well as living and activity conditions that significantly affect performance (the general regime of exercise and rest , the total amount of transferred loads, nutrition, environmental conditions). The main guarantee of the desired effectiveness of physical exercises- their qualified use, based on a deep understanding and skillful adherence to the scientific principles of constructing physical education.

1.1.4. Classification of physical exercises

Classify physical exercises means logically presenting them as some ordered set with division into groups and subgroups according to specific characteristics. The significance of the classification is determined primarily by what particular feature (or features) is based on it, and how important it is in scientific and practical terms. If the classification of physical exercises is based on a sign that is essential for physical education, the classification helps to correctly navigate a huge variety of exercises, rationally select and use them expediently.

In the history of physical education, many different classifications of exercises are known. Often classifications were based on purely formal grounds (for example, exercises with apparatus, on apparatus and without apparatus - from the German Tournain of the 18th century and Sokol gymnastics of the 19th century) or private, insignificant features determined by the narrow formulation of the tasks of physical education (for example, according to anatomical basis in Swedish gymnastics of the 19th century with its narrow focus on the development of external forms of the body or on a purely utilitarian basis, like Hébert’s classification in France).

A fully developed universal classification of physical exercises has not yet been created. The problem is to systematize the whole variety of physical exercises based on the objective opportunities they provide for the implementation of the tasks of comprehensive physical education, and group them so that it is possible to select exercises based on their greatest effectiveness. It is also important that the classification provides for the possibility of the emergence of new forms of exercise.

In a general overview of the totality of physical exercises in the specialized literature, they often resort to grouping them according to their belonging to historically established types of gymnastics, sports, games and tourism. Within the groups, more fractional divisions are introduced (for example, gymnastics is divided into basic, or general preparatory, sports, auxiliary sports, industrial). However, such a classification is not sufficiently clear, does not adequately reflect the increasingly deeper interpenetration and changes in previously established means and methods of physical education, and has other disadvantages.

One of the widespread and practically justified classifications of physical exercises today is the classification of physical exercises according to the requirements that they primarily place on a person’s physical qualities, and according to some additional characteristics. Accordingly, they distinguish:

1) speed-strength types of exercises characterized
maximum intensity, or power, of effort (sprinter
ski running, throwing, jumping, lifting weights, etc.);

2) types of exercises that require predominantly endurance in cyclic movements (middle and long distance running, cross-country skiing, walking, swimming, rowing for appropriate distances, etc.);

3) types of exercises that require the manifestation of mainly coordination and other abilities under the conditions of a strictly specified movement program (gymnastic and acrobatic exercises, diving, figure skating, synchronized swimming, etc.);

4) types of exercises that require complex manifestation of physical qualities in conditions of variable modes of motor activity, continuous changes in situations and forms of action (wrestling, boxing, fencing, sports games, etc.).

Along with this relatively general classification and in addition to it, a number of special disciplines use private classifications of physical exercises. Thus, in biomechanics it is customary to subdivide them into locomotor (aimed at moving one’s body in space), rotational, displacement (associated with the movement of external physical bodies), etc., in physiology - into exercises performed in different zones of physiological intensity of work (maximum, submaximal, large and moderate).

The classification of exercises according to the characteristics of the structure of movements is quite widespread, when groups of cyclic, acyclic and combined (compound) exercises are distinguished. Of no small methodological importance is the grouping of exercises according to their specific purpose in the process of mastering target motor actions, while preparatory and main (target) exercises are distinguished, and the former are divided into general preparatory and special preparatory.

The existence of a number of classifications based on various characteristics is not without meaning if the characteristics, at least to some extent, have scientific and (or) practical significance.

In this case, the classifications complement each other, in their totality they help to navigate the real diversity of phenomena, their properties and relationships, and it is advisable to streamline activities aimed at their use.

In any classification, it is assumed that each exercise has relatively constant (invariant) characteristics, including the impact effect. However, in fact, as already mentioned, the specific effect of any exercise depends not only on the properties inherent in the exercise itself, but also on a number of conditions for its implementation: on Who that's what it does, How it is performed under whose leadership and in what kind of environment classes are held. Therefore, in order to correctly judge the possible effect of a particular exercise, it is not enough to imagine only its place in the classification - It is necessary to consider each exercise in unity with the methodology and other essential conditions for its application.

1.2. Load and rest as interrelated components of the exercise process

1.2.1. Load during exercise

Among the concepts essential for characterizing the means and methods of physical education, one of the main ones is “load”. This concept partly coincides with such concepts as “exercise”, “work”, etc., but is not identical to them. It characterizes primarily the magnitude of the demands placed on the body by the exercise - how large they are and to what extent they are feasible for the person performing the exercise (accordingly, they distinguish between maximum, large, medium, small and other degrees of load). When forming a generalized idea of ​​the load associated with performing various exercises, we abstract from the particular features of their form and content and take into account only what allows us to assess in general the degree of demands they place on the body.

The concept of “load” reflects the obvious fact that performing any physical exercise is associated with transferring the functional state of the body to a higher level of activity than at rest and in this sense is an additional load that loads the functional systems and causes, if it is large enough, fatigue. in this regard - This is an additional degree of functional activity of the body compared to rest, brought by the implementation of an exercise (or exercises), as well as the degree of difficulties endured. The effect of physical exercise is naturally related to the parameters of the loads they impose. Hence the need for careful analysis and assessment, rationing and regulation of loads.

“External” and “internal” sides of the load. Indicators of load when performing physical exercises are, on the one hand, values ​​characterizing the work performed V its externally expressed dimensions (duration of the exercise, amount of work in the physical-mechanical sense, distance covered, speed of movement, etc.); on the other hand, the values ​​of functional and